Structurally controlled deposition of silicon onto nanowires

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are nanostructures for lithium ion battery electrodes and methods of fabrication. In some embodiments, a nanostructure template coated with a silicon coating is provided. The silicon coating may include a non-conformal, more porous layer and a conformal, denser layer on the non-conformal, more porous layer. In some embodiments, two different deposition processes, e.g., a PECVD layer to deposit the non-conformal layer and a thermal CVD process to deposit the conformal layer, are used. Anodes including the nanostructures have longer cycle lifetimes than anodes made using either a PECVD or thermal CVD method alone.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S.application Ser. No. 14/710,103, titled “STRUCTURALLY CONTROLLEDDEPOSITION OF SILICON ONTO NANOWIRES,” filed May 12, 2015, which claimspriority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/992,121, titled“STRUCTURALLY CONTROLLED DEPOSITION OF SILICON ONTO NANOWIRES,” filedMay 12, 2014, each is incorporated by reference herein in its entiretyand for all purposes.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

The invention described and claimed herein was made in part utilizingfunds supplied by the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No.DE-EE0005474. The Government has certain rights in this invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

This invention relates generally to nanostructures, and, morespecifically, to multilayered silicon nanowire structures that areuseful in battery anodes.

Much work has been done to find a way to use silicon in lithium batteryanodes. Silicon holds much promise as it has ten times the lithiumcapacity as currently-used graphite. But, unfortunately, in absorbing somuch lithium, silicon swells by 400%, which usually results in crumblingof the silicon and a short battery lifetime.

SUMMARY

In one aspect an anode for a lithium battery is provided, the anodeincluding a substrate; a nanowire template rooted to the substrate; afirst silicon layer substantially coating the nanowire template, thefirst silicon layer having a first density; and a second silicon layerover the first silicon layer and any exposed nanowire template, thesecond silicon layer having a density higher than the density of thefirst silicon layer. According to various embodiments, the first densitymay be less than 2.2 g/cm³, 2.1 g/cm³, 2.0 g/cm³, 1.9 g/cm³, 1.8 g/cm³,or 1.7 g/cm³. The second silicon layer may have a density greater than2.25 g/cm³ in some embodiments. In some embodiments, the second siliconlayer has a density at least 0.05 g/cm³ greater or 0.15 g/cm³ than thatof the first silicon layer.

The first silicon layer may be non-conformal to the nanowire template.In some embodiments, the second silicon layer is conformal to theunderlying surface. In some embodiments, the hydrogen content of thefirst silicon layer is at least 10%. In the same or other embodiments,the hydrogen content of the second silicon layer may be no more than 5%.According to various embodiments, the nanowire template may beconductive and can include silicide nanowires. An example is a nickelsilicide nanowire template.

In some embodiments, the first silicon layer is between about 5 and 20microns thick at its maximum diameter. In some embodiments, the secondsilicon layer is between about 5 and 500 nanometers thick, e.g., betweenabout 5 and 100 nanometers thick.

Another aspect of the disclosure relates to a lithium battery includingan anode as described above, a lithium-containing cathode, and anelectrolyte in ionic communication with both the anode and the cathode.

Another aspect of the disclosure relates to a nanostructure including afirst silicon layer having a first density; and a second silicon layerover the first silicon layer, the second silicon layer having a densityhigher than the density of the first silicon layer. According to variousembodiments, the first density may be less than 2.2 g/cm³, 2.1 g/cm³,2.0 g/cm³, 1.9 g/cm³, 1.8 g/cm³, or 1.7 g/cm³. The second silicon layermay have a density greater than 2.25 g/cm³ in some embodiments. In someembodiments, the second silicon layer has a density at least 0.05 g/cm³greater or 0.15 g/cm³ than that of the first silicon layer. In someembodiments, the nanostructure includes a nanowire within the firstsilicon wire. The nanowire may be growth-rooted to the substrate.

Yet another aspect of the disclosure relates to method of making ananode for a lithium battery, including providing a substrate; growingnanowires from the substrate, depositing a first silicon layer over thenanowires using a PECVD method; and depositing a second silicon layerover the first silicon layer, the nanowires, and the substrate using athermal CVD method. In some embodiments, the nanowires are silicidenanowires. In some embodiments, the PECVD method is an expanding thermalplasma (ETP) method.

These and other aspects are described further below with reference tothe figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing aspects and others will be readily appreciated by theskilled artisan from the following description of illustrativeembodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of nanowires over which a siliconlayer has been deposited using thermal CVD (chemical vapor deposition).

FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of nanowires over which a siliconlayer has been deposited using PECVD (plasma enhanced chemical vapordeposition).

FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of nanowires over which a firstsilicon layer has been deposited using PECVD and then a second siliconlayer has been deposited using thermal CVD, according to an embodimentof the invention.

FIG. 4 is a SEM (scanning electron microscope) top-view image ofnanowires over which a silicon layer has been deposited using PECVD.

FIG. 5 is a SEM top-view image of nanowires over which a first siliconlayer has been deposited using PECVD and then a second silicon layer hasbeen deposited using thermal CVD, according to an embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 6 is a SEM cross-section view image of a nanostructure that has aninner core of PECVD silicon and an outer layer of thermal CVD silicon,according to an embodiment of the invention.

FIG. 7 shows a schematic depiction of a representation of anon-conformal silicon coating on a template nanowire.

FIGS. 8A and 8B are graphs shown capacity vs. cycle number and capacityretention vs. cycle number for electrodes having templated PECVD+thermalCVD (TCVD) Si layers, templated PECVD-only Si layers, and templatedTCVD-only layers.

FIG. 9A is schematic representation of a plan view of apartially-assembled electrochemical cell that uses electrodes describedherein, according to certain embodiments.

FIG. 9B is schematic representation of a cross-sectional view of anelectrode stack of a partially-assembled electrochemical cell that useselectrodes described herein, according to certain embodiments.

FIGS. 10A-10C are schematic representations of various views ofelectrodes wound together with two sheets of separator to form a cellaccording to certain embodiments.

FIGS. 11A and 11B are schematic representations of cross-sectional andperspective views of a stacked cell that includes a plurality of cellsaccording to certain embodiments.

FIG. 12 is schematic representation of cross-sectional view of a woundcylindrical cell, in accordance with certain embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Certain embodiments are illustrated in the context of silicon depositiononto silicide nanowires. The skilled artisan will readily appreciate,however, that the materials and methods disclosed herein will haveapplication in a number of other contexts where it is useful to adjustdeposition to produce layers with specific characteristics. For example,various embodiments are described herein with reference to nanowires. Itshould be understood, however, that unless otherwise stated, thereferences herein to nanowires include other types of nanostructures asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 8,257,866, incorporated by reference herein,such as nanotubes, nanoparticles, nanospheres, nanorods, nanowhiskers,and the like.

Generally, the term “nanostructures” refers to structures having atleast one dimension that is less than about 1 micron. This dimensioncould be, for example, a diameter of the nanostructure (e.g., a silicidetemplate nanowire), a thickness of the shell formed over a template(e.g., a thickness of the amorphous silicon layers), or some othernanostructure dimension. It should be understood that any of the overalldimensions (length and diameter) of the final coated structure do nothave to be at a nanoscale. For example, a final structure may include alayer that is about 10 microns in thickness at its greatest diameter andcoated over a template that is about 100 nanometers in diameter and 20microns in length. While this overall structure is about 10.1 microns atits greatest diameter and 20 microns in length, it could be generallyreferred to as a “nanostructure” because of the dimensions of thetemplate. In specific embodiments, the term “nanowire” refers tostructures with nano-scaled shells positioned over elongated templatestructures.

Nanowires (as a specific case of nanostructures) have an aspect ratio ofgreater than one, typically at least about two and more frequently atleast about four. In specific embodiments, nanowires have an aspectratio of at least about 10 and even at least about 100 or 500. Nanowiresmay make use of their one larger dimension to connect to other electrodecomponents (e.g., a conductive substrate, other active materialstructures, or conductive additives). For example, nanowires may besubstrate rooted such that one end (or some other part) of the majorityof the nanowires is in contact with the substrate. Because the two otherdimensions are small and there is an adjacent void volume available forexpansion, the internal stress built up in the nanowires duringlithiation (e.g., expansion of the nano-shells positioned over thesilicide templates) is also small and does not break apart the nanowires(as happens with larger structures). Certain dimensions of the nanowires(e.g., an overall diameter and/or a shell thickness) are kept below thecorresponding fracture levels of the active material used. Nanowiresalso permit a relatively high capacity per unit area of the electrodesurface due to their elongated structure, which corresponds to theheight of the template structure. This results from their relativelyhigh aspect ratio and terminal connection to the substrate.

Silicon nanostructures can be made by first growing a nanowire templatestructure that is not pure silicon and then coating the template withsilicon. Thermal CVD (chemical vapor deposition), HWCVD (hot-wire CVD),and/or PECVD (plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition) may be used todeposit the silicon.

Various deposition processes produce different profiles when depositingsilicon onto nanowires. For example, thermal CVD creates a conformalamorphous Si coating. HWCVD (also known as catalytic CVD) makes a highdensity, non-conformal amorphous Si coating that is thicker at the tipsof the nanowires and thinner at the roots of the nanowires near thesubstrate. PECVD also produces non-conformal amorphous Si coating thatis thicker at the ends of the nanowires and thinner at the roots of thenanowires near the substrate, but the coating has a low density withmany small voids.

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of nanowires over which a conformalsilicon layer has been deposited using thermal CVD. A nanowire template110 is grown from a substrate 120. A silicon layer 130 is deposited ontothe nanowire template 110. Note that the silicon layer 130 coats boththe nanowire template 110 and the substrate 120, and that the coatinghas approximately the same thickness everywhere.

One advantage for the structure shown in FIG. 1 is that its structure isvery dense. When an anode made using such a structure is cycled in abattery, the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer that forms on thesilicon is very thin as the silicon formed by thermal CVD is very dense.One of the disadvantages for the structure shown in FIG. 1 is the thicklayer of silicon at the roots of the nanowires. When an anode made usingsuch a structure is cycled in a battery, there is great expansion andcontraction in the silicon layer. Expansion in the root area can inducewrinkling of the Si layer and delamination of the nanowires, causingbattery failure. Another disadvantage occurs because the nanowires inthe template may not be exactly parallel as shown in FIG. 1. Instead,they grow at different angles and very often grow in clusters. Thenanowires do not all have the same length. When coated by thermal CVD,the root area of the clusters, together with some short nanowires, canform a continuous silicon layer, which also can lead to delamination.

FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of nanowires over which a siliconlayer has been deposited using PECVD. Initially, PECVD may deposit avery thin layer (less than 1 micron and typically much less than 1micron, such as 0.1-0.4 microns) of silicon on the substrate and at theroots of the nanowires. However, these areas are quickly shadowed bysubsequent deposition at the tips of the nanowires. Depending onnanowire uniformity across the substrate surface, the very thin layer onthe substrate may or may not be continuous. Under ideal surface anddeposition conditions, a uniform thin layer may be expected but inpractical cases, at the substrate-nanowire interface, there may be adiscontinuity due to non-uniform distribution of nanowires on thesurface.

In FIG. 2, a nanowire template 210 is grown from a substrate 220. Asilicon layer 240 is deposited onto the nanowire template 210. Note thatthe silicon layer 240 is thickest at the tips of the nanowires of thenanowire template 210 and tapers off until there is essentially nosilicon at the roots of nanowires. There is essentially no silicon onthe substrate 220 either.

One advantage for the structure shown in FIG. 2 is that the root areasof the nanowires are coated only with only this very thin silicon layer.When an anode made using such a structure is cycled in a battery, thepossibility of failure caused by expansion at the nanowire root area isgreatly reduced. Another advantage is that PECVD coatings are not asdense as thermal CVD coatings; they can contain a large volume of voidsand pores. Such defects can be very helpful in providing space intowhich the silicon can expand as it absorbs lithium.

One of the disadvantages of the structure shown in FIG. 2 is that theroot area of the nanowires is not coated effectively. When an anode madeusing such a structure is cycled in a battery, the regions around theroots cannot participate electrochemically, thus causing a reduction involumetric energy density of the battery. If more silicon were depositedonto the nanowires, the silicon layer at the tips of the nanowires wouldbe too thick, causing fracturing of the silicon during cycling andsubsequent anode failure. Another disadvantage is that the presence ofvoids can lead to large surface area of the coated nanowires and waterabsorption within the layer or at the surface. Very thick SEI layers canform as the battery is cycled, thus reducing the columbic efficiency andshortening the cycle life of the battery.

In one embodiment of the invention, the deposition methods discussedabove are combined to provide optimum Si coatings as shown in FIG. 3which is a schematic illustration of nanowires over which two siliconlayers have been deposited. A nanowire template 310 is grown from asubstrate 320. A first silicon layer 340 with a tapered profile isdeposited onto the nanowire template 310 using PECVD. The first siliconlayer 340 may be between about, for example, 0.5 and 10 microns thick atthe top of the nanowire. In some embodiments, the first silicon layermay be thicker, e.g., between about 10 to 50 microns, or 10-20 microns.A second silicon layer 330 with a conformal profile is deposited ontothe top of first silicon layer 340 using thermal CVD. The second siliconlayer 330 may be, for example, between about 10 and 500 nm thick. Theresulting structure has much more silicon at the tips of the nanowiresthan at the root ends. In more particular embodiments, the secondsilicon layer may be between 5 and 200 nm thick, or 10 to 90 nm thick.The second silicon layer 330 is conformal to the underlying surface,which includes the first silicon layer 340, the substrate 320, and anyexposed portions of the nanowire template 310. As noted above, it hasapproximately uniform thickness.

According to various embodiments, the layer on the substrate surface mayor may not be continuous. High performance may be achieved unless thelayer on the substrate is too thick (e.g., greater than 2 microns) andcontinuous.

FIG. 4 is a SEM (scanning electron microscope) top-view image ofnanowires over which a silicon layer has been deposited using PECVD.

FIG. 5 is a SEM top-view image of nanowires over which a first siliconlayer has been deposited using PECVD and then a second silicon layer hasbeen deposited using thermal CVD.

The novel structures described herein have many advantages. In someembodiments, there is more silicon near the tip of the nanowire than atthe root, but there is still some silicon at the root. Having such athin silicon layer at the root ensures that delamination does not occurduring cycling. In some embodiments, there may also be electrochemicalparticipation throughout the entire length of the nanowire. Further, SEIlayer formation may be stabilized.

In some embodiments, the first silicon layer deposited is amorphous andhas a low density, such as a density of about 1.70 g/cm³ or less, or2.10 g/cm³ or less, or 2.2 g/cm³ or less, or less than 2.25 g/cm³ andmay include many small voids. The second silicon layer deposited isamorphous and has a high density, such as a density of about 2.25 g/cm³or more. The density of each layer is less than that of crystallinesilicon.

According to various embodiments, the nanostructures may becharacterized by a second silicon layer over a first silicon layer, thesecond silicon layer having a density higher than the density of thefirst silicon layer. As discussed above, in some embodiments, the firstsilicon layer provides space into which the silicon can expand as itabsorbs lithium, while the second silicon layer reduces SEI layerformation. As such, the densities of each layer may be adjusteddepending on the electrolyte, capacity of the battery, nanowire templatedensity, etc. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the densities may becharacterized in terms of a difference between densities of the layers,rather than or in addition to by absolute density. In some embodiments,the second silicon layer may have a density of at least 0.05 g/cm³greater than the first silicon layer, or at least 0.1 g/cm³ greater thanthe first silicon layer, or at least 0.2 g/cm³ than the first siliconlayer, or at least 0.3 g/cm³ greater than the first silicon layer.

FIG. 6 is a SEM cross-section view image of a nanostructure that has aninner core of PECVD silicon 640 and an outer layer of thermal CVDsilicon 630, according to an embodiment of the invention. The porousmorphology of the PECVD silicon 640 can be seen clearly as can thenon-porous morphology of the thermal CVD silicon 630.

Aspects of the methods and structures disclosed herein may beimplemented with other high capacity active materials, in addition to orinstead of silicon. An electrochemically active material may have atheoretical lithiation capacity of at least about 500 mAh/g or, morespecifically, of at least about 1000 mAh/g. Active materials with suchcapacities may be referred to as “high capacity active materials.” Inaddition to amorphous silicon, examples of high capacity activematerials include silicon-containing compounds, tin and tin-containingcompounds, germanium and germanium-containing compounds. For example, insome embodiments, an electrode may include a dual density germaniumlayer including a first inner layer having a lower density and secondouter layer having a higher density.

In certain embodiments, high capacity active materials or templates areformed as substrate rooted nanostructures. These nanostructures may bephysically and conductively attached to a conductive substrate, whichmay serve as a current collector for this electrode. The physicalattachment may be more than a simple mechanical contact, which mightresult, for example, from coating a binder with discrete nanostructuresonto the substrate. In some embodiments, the physical attachment resultsfrom fusion of the nanostructures to the substrate or deposition of thenanostructures or some portion of the nanostructures directly onto thesubstrate, for example, using CVD techniques or, even more, specificallyusing vapor-liquid-solid CVD growth. In yet another example, physicalattachment results from ballistic impalement of the nanostructures ontothe substrate. In certain embodiments, physical attachment includescertain forms of metallurgical bonds, such as a formation of alloys oftwo bonded materials (e.g., silicides).

In many embodiments, the nanowire template is a conductive material,with examples of conductive templates including metal templates andmetal silicide templates. In some embodiments, a conductive template mayinclude an oxide. As used herein, the term “conductive” refers broadlyto electrical conductors, as distinct from semiconductors andinsulators. The nanowire template may have conductivity of at leastabout 10³ S/m, or more specifically at least about 10⁶ S/m or even atleast about 10⁷ S/m. Conductive templates can be useful to provide atransport path from the silicon electrochemically active material to acurrent collector as well as mechanically supporting the silicon layers.In some embodiments, however, the nanowire template may be asemiconductor or insulator (e.g., an oxide) that provides mechanicalsupport to the silicon. Silicon nanowires may also be used as atemplate, with one or more coatings of a-Si deposited over the siliconnanowires as described herein. Silicon nanowire anodes are described inU.S. Pat. No. 7,816,031, incorporated by reference herein.

Nanowires of the nanowire template may be non-branched linear nanowiresor branched nanowires. An electrode may include a combination ofnon-branched and branched nanowires, or only include only one of thesetypes. While the templates may generally be elongated templatestructures, as described above, nanospheres, nanorods, nanowhiskers,nanoparticles, and the like may be employed. A nanowire template may bepart of or include a multidimensional structure. One example of such astructure is a central core to which multiple nanowires are attached,forming “fuzzy ball-like” or “snowball-like” structures. An example ofsuch a structure is shown in U.S. patent application Ser. No.13/277,821, incorporated by reference herein.

In certain embodiments, nanowires in a nanowire template are betweenabout 10 nanometers and 100 nanometers in diameter and between about 10microns and 100 microns in length. In one example, a structure mayinclude nanowires ranging from 5 to 40 microns. However, nanowireshaving other dimensions may be used.

Nanowire density can depend on the length of the nanowires, the desiredcapacity, the expansion ratio of the active material, and the particularapplication. If spacing between template structures is less than thecoating thickness, it can cause significant interconnections of theactive material layer. Interconnections near the roots can createagglomerated or continuous film like structures, which impede good cycleperformance. The nanowires may be randomly distributed, with a varietyof lengths and randomly-oriented. In some implementations, however,templated or guided methods of growth that produce uniform densitiesand/or orientations may be used. In one example, nanowires of a templatestructure may be grouped into various size bins, e.g., short, medium,and long sizes. Long nanowires may be identified as being visible in atop-down SEM image as depicted above. Example densities may be 0.5 to 20long nanowires per 100 micron squared and 2 to 400 total nanowires per100 microns squared. In some embodiments, a nanowire density may bedetermined for a particular mass loading. For example, for a massloading between 2.5 and 2.9 mg/cm², a top diameter of the Si coating of4 to 6 microns and a bottom diameter of 0.2 to 0.3 microns, a topnanowire density may be 2×10⁶ to 6×10⁶ long nanowires per centimetersquared.

The substrate is generally a conductive material having a conductivityof at least about 10³ S/m, or more specifically at least about 10⁶ S/mor even at least about 10⁷ S/m, particularly if the nanowire template isrooted to the substrate, and may be used as a current collector in thebattery. This may be desirable when the substrate rooted structure isemployed as a fully fabricated electrode for a battery or fuel cell.Examples of conductive substrate materials include copper, copper coatedwith metal oxides, stainless steel, titanium, aluminum, nickel,chromium, tungsten, other metals, metal silicides and other conductivemetal compounds, carbon, carbon fiber, graphite, graphene, carbon mesh,conductive polymers, doped silicon or combinations of above includingmulti-layer structures. The substrate may be formed as a foil, film,mesh, foam, laminate, wires, tubes, particles, multi-layer structure, orany other suitable configuration. In certain embodiments, a substrate isa metallic foil with a thickness of between about 1 micron and 50microns or more specifically between about 5 microns and 30 microns.

According to various embodiments, a silicon coating may be characterizedby one or more of shape (also referred to as morphology), density, andbulk and surface composition. In terms of morphology, the first siliconlayer may be generally characterized as non-conformal, having athickness that is variable in the direction vertical to the substrate.

In some embodiments, a silicon layer has a generally circular symmetry.See, e.g., the top view SEM image in FIG. 4. It should be noted that anarray of nanowires having generally circular symmetry includes arrays inwhich asymmetries may be introduced due to two nanowires being closeenough that their coatings abut one another.

FIG. 7 shows a schematic depiction of a representation of a coating as awater drop or a conical frustum. The dimensions d1, d2 and h arelabeled, with d1 being the largest diameter of the coating, d2 being thebottom diameter of the coating, and h being the height of the anodeafter coating. The non-conformal coating (porous non-conformal coatingalone, or porous non-conformal coating conformally coated with the densecoating) may be characterized in some embodiments by the followingratios: d1/h of 1/2 to 1/9, d2/h of 1/400 to 1/70 and a d1/d2 ratio of50:1 to 1.5:1.

In an example, d1 may be between 4 and 15 microns, or 4 and 12 microns,d2 may be between about 0.2 and 2 microns, and height may be betweenabout 20 and 50 microns, e.g., between about 30 and 40 microns. Thecoating may extend between 10 and 20 microns above the height of thenanowire in some embodiments. The non-conformal layer substantiallycoats the nanowire, with the non-conformal coating extending at leastmost of the length of the nanowires, and in some embodiments, coatingthe entire template. As described above, there may be discontinuitiesnear or at the root of the nanowire template.

In one example, a nanowire having a diameter of about 10 to 50 nm and alength of between about 10 to 25 microns is coated with silicon, suchthat after coating the diameter of the nanostructure at the root is 100to 400 nm, the maximum diameter is 2 to 20 microns, and the total heightof the anode is 20 to 40 microns.

In some embodiments, a non-conformal layer may be characterized by ahydrogen (H) content of at least 10%. In some embodiments, a conformal,dense layer may be characterized by a bulk H content of no more than 7%,or no more than 5%.

The non-conformal, porous silicon layers may be deposited by a methodsuch as evaporation or other physical vapor deposition (PVD) method orHWCVD instead of or in addition to PECVD.

In PECVD processes, according to various implementations, a plasma maybe generated in a chamber in which the substrate is disposed or upstreamof the chamber and fed into the chamber. Any type of plasma, includingcapacitively-coupled plasmas, inductively-coupled plasmas, andconductive coupled plasmas may be used. Any appropriate plasma sourcemay be used, including DC, AC, RF and microwave sources may be used.

PECVD process conditions can vary according to the particular processand tool used. A fairly wide range of temperatures, e.g., 180° C. to600° C., may be used. Pressures are generally low for plasma processes,e.g., ranging from 50 mTorr to 400 Torr, or 200 mTorr to 10 Torr,depending on the process.

In some implementations, the PECVD process is an expanding thermalplasma chemical vapor deposition (ETP-CVD) process. In such a process, aplasma generating gas is passed through a direct current arc plasmagenerator to form a plasma, with a web or other substrate including thenanowire template in an adjoining vacuum chamber. A silicon source gasis injected into the plasma, with radicals generated. The plasma isexpanded via a diverging nozzle and injected into the vacuum chamber andtoward the substrate, with a non-conformal layer of amorphous siliconformed on the nanowire template. An example of a plasma generating gasis argon (Ar). In some embodiments, the ionized argon species in theplasma collide with silicon source molecules to form radical species ofthe silicon source, resulting in deposition on the nanowire template.Example ranges for voltages and currents for the DC plasma source are 60to 80 volts and 50 to 70 amperes, respectively.

The conformal, dense silicon layers may be deposited by a method asatomic layer deposition (ALD) instead of or in addition to thermal CVD.Any appropriate thermal CVD process may be used, such as low pressureCVD (LPCVD). Temperatures may go as high as the thermal budget allows insome embodiments, as long as no metal silicide is formed aroundnanowire-substrate interface due to the increase of temperature whenusing a metal substrate.

Any appropriate silicon source may be used for the non-conformal andconformal silicon layers, including silane (SiH₄), dichlorosilane(H₂SiCl₂), monochlorosilane (H₃SiCl), trichlorosilane (HSiCl₃), andsilicon tetrachloride (SiCl₄) to form the silicon layers. Depending onthe gas used, the amorphous silicon layer may be formed by decompositionor a reaction with another compound, such as by hydrogen reduction.According to various embodiments, the same or a different silicon sourcemay be used for the each of the layers.

According to various embodiments, the PECVD processes result innon-conformal coatings due to gas phase radical generation of thesilicon precursor and gas phase nucleation and condensation on thesurfaces of the template. By contrast, the thermal CVD reactions are runat conditions that result in surface reactions. High energy and mobilityat the surface results in a conformal layer. In some embodiments,chamber pressure during a thermal CVD process is kept low, e.g., 100mTorr to 2 Torr to prevent gas phase reactions and non-conformaldeposition. Higher pressures, e.g., higher than 2 Torr or 500 Torr canresult in non-conformal deposition.

Additional description of depositing active material layers havingcontrolled densities may be found in U.S. patent application Ser. No.13/277,821, incorporated by reference herein.

As indicated above, the nanostructures may be characterized by a secondsilicon layer over a first silicon layer, the second silicon layerhaving a density higher than the density of the first silicon layer. Insome embodiments, the first silicon layer may be deposited directly onthe nanowire template, with the second silicon layer being the outermostshell of the coated template. However, in some embodiments, other layersmay be present. For example, a thin dense silicon layer may be depositedon a nanowire template, followed by a thicker porous layer, and a secondthin dense layer.

Still further, a non-Si layer may be the outermost shell of thenanostructure in some embodiments. Examples of layers include metaloxides such as aluminum oxide, titanium oxide, cobalt oxide, andzirconium oxide, metal nitrides, and silicon nitrides. In someembodiments, a thin layer of any of these may be deposited in additionto or instead of the dense Si layer described above.

According to various embodiments, each of the first and second siliconlayers may have a uniform density. However, in some embodiments,deposition conditions may be tuned during deposition to provide adensity gradient in one or both layers. For example, either layer mayget denser toward the outer part of the layer. In such embodiments, anaverage density of the layer may be used to characterize the density oflayer as described above.

In some embodiments, silicon may be deposited by HWCVD. In some suchimplementations, a single Si layer having a density between thattypically deposited by PECVD and that typically deposited by TCVD may bedeposited. It can also be used to coat both the first and the second Sicoatings by tuning the deposition process.

Experimental

Cycling data from nanowires with two layers of Si as described herein,shows that such structures have increased cycle lifetimes overstructures that are made using only PECVD or only thermal CVD. FIGS. 8Aand 8B are graphs shown capacity vs. cycle number and capacity retentionvs. cycle number for electrodes having templated PECVD+thermal CVD(TCVD) Si layers, templated PECVD only Si layers, and template TCVD onlylayers. Capacity and capacity retention is highest for the PECVD+TCVD Silayers. As described above, the PECVD layer is a more porous, less denseinternal layer and the TCVD layer is a denser external layer.

Assembly

FIG. 9A is a plan view of a partially-assembled electrochemical cellthat uses electrodes described herein, according to certain embodiments.The cell has a positive electrode active layer 902 that is showncovering a major portion of a positive current collector 903. The cellalso has a negative electrode active layer 904 that is shown covering amajor portion of a negative current collector 905. Separator 906 isbetween the positive electrode active layer 902 and the negativeelectrode active layer 904.

In one embodiment, the negative electrode active layer 904 is slightlylarger than the positive electrode active layer 902 to ensure trappingof the lithium ions released from the positive electrode active layer902 by the active material of the negative electrode active layer 904.In one embodiment, the negative electrode active layer 904 extends atleast between about 0.25 millimeters and 7 millimeters beyond thepositive electrode active layer 902 in one or more directions. In a morespecific embodiment, the negative electrode active layer 904 extendsbeyond the positive electrode active layer 902 by between about 1millimeter and 2 millimeters in one or more directions. In certainembodiments, the edges of the separator 906 extend beyond the outeredges of at least the negative electrode active layer 904 to provide thecomplete electronic insulation of the negative electrode from the otherbattery components.

FIG. 9B is a cross-sectional view of an electrode stack 900 of thepartially-assembled electrochemical cell that uses electrodes describedherein, according to certain embodiments. There is a positive currentcollector 903 that has a positive electrode active layer 902 a on oneside and a positive electrode active layer 902 b on the opposite side.There is a negative current collector 905 that has a negative electrodeactive layer 904 a on one side and a negative electrode active layer 904b on the opposite side. There is a separator 906 a between the positiveelectrode active layer 902 a and the negative electrode active layer 904a. The separator sheets 906 a and 906 b serves to maintain mechanicalseparation between the positive electrode active layer 902 a and thenegative electrode active layer 904 a and acts as a sponge to soak upthe liquid electrolyte (not shown) that will be added later. The ends ofthe current collectors 903, 905, on which there is no active material,can be used for connecting to the appropriate terminal of a cell (notshown).

Together, the electrode layers 902 a, 904 a, the current collectors 903,905, and the separator 906 a can be said to form one electrochemicalcell unit. The complete stack 900 shown in FIG. 9B, includes theelectrode layers 902 b, 904 b and the additional separator 906 b. Thecurrent collectors 903, 905 can be shared between adjacent cells. Whensuch stacks are repeated, the result is a cell or battery with largercapacity than that of a single cell unit.

Another way to make a battery or cell with large capacity is to make onevery large cell unit and wind it in upon itself to make multiple stacks.The cross-section schematic illustration in FIG. 10A shows how long andnarrow electrodes can be wound together with two sheets of separator toform a battery or cell, sometimes referred to as a jellyroll 1000. Thejellyroll is shaped and sized to fit the internal dimensions of acurved, often cylindrical, case 1002. The jellyroll 1000 has a positiveelectrode 1006 and a negative electrode 1004. The white spaces betweenthe electrodes are the separator sheets. The jelly roll can be insertedinto the case 1002. In some embodiments, the jellyroll 1000 may have amandrel 1008 in the center that establishes an initial winding diameterand prevents the inner winds from occupying the center axial region. Themandrel 1008 may be made of conductive material, and, in someembodiments, it may be a part of a cell terminal. FIG. 10B shows aperspective view of the jelly roll 1000 with a positive tab 1012 and anegative tab 1014 extending from the positive current collector (notshown) and the negative current collector (not shown), respectively. Thetabs may be welded to the current collectors.

The length and width of the electrodes depend on the overall dimensionsof the cell and thicknesses of the active layers and the currentcollectors. For example, a conventional 18650-type cell with 18 mmdiameter and 85 mm length may have electrodes that are between about 300and 1000 mm long. Shorter electrodes corresponding to lower rate/highercapacity applications are thicker and have fewer winds.

A cylindrical design may be used for some lithium ion cells especiallywhen the electrodes can swell during cycling and thus exert pressure onthe casing. It is useful to use a cylindrical casing that is as thin aspossible while still being able to maintain sufficient pressure on thecell (with a good safety margin). Prismatic (flat) cells may besimilarly wound, but their case may be flexible so that they can bendalong the longer sides to accommodate the internal pressure. Moreover,the pressure may not be the same within different parts of the cell, andthe corners of the prismatic cell may be left empty. Empty pockets maybe avoided within lithium ions cells because electrodes tend to beunevenly pushed into these pockets during electrode swelling. Moreover,the electrolyte may aggregate in empty pockets and leave dry areasbetween the electrodes, negatively affecting lithium ion transportbetween the electrodes. Nevertheless, for certain applications, such asthose dictated by rectangular form factors, prismatic cells areappropriate. In some embodiments, prismatic cells employ stacks ofrectangular electrodes and separator sheets to avoid some of thedifficulties encountered with wound prismatic cells.

FIG. 10C illustrates a top view of a wound prismatic jellyroll 1020. Thejellyroll 1020 includes a positive electrode 1024 and a negativeelectrode 1026. The white space between the electrodes is the separatorsheet. The jelly roll 1020 is enclosed in a rectangular prismatic case1022. Unlike the cylindrical jellyroll shown in FIG. 12, the winding ofthe prismatic jellyroll starts with a flat extended section in themiddle of the jelly roll. In one embodiment, the jelly roll may includea mandrel (not shown) in the middle of the jellyroll onto which theelectrodes and separator are wound.

FIG. 11A illustrates a cross-section of a stacked cell that includes aplurality of cells (1101 a, 1101 b, 1101 c, 1101 d, and 1101 e), eachhaving a positive electrode (e.g., 1103 a, 1103 b), a positive currentcollector (e.g., 1102), a negative electrode (e.g., 1105 a, 1105 b), anegative current collector (e.g., 1104), and a separator (e.g., 1106 a,1106 b) between the electrodes. Each current collector is shared byadjacent cells. A stacked cell can be made in almost any shape, which isparticularly suitable for prismatic batteries. The current collectortabs typically extend from the stack and lead to a battery terminal.FIG. 11B shows a perspective view of a stacked cell that includes aplurality of cells.

Once the electrodes are arranged as described above, the cell is filledwith electrolyte. The electrolyte in lithium ions cells may be liquid,solid, or gel. The lithium ion cells with the solid electrolyte arereferred to as a lithium polymer cells.

A typical liquid electrolyte comprises one or more solvents and one ormore salts, at least one of which includes lithium. During the firstcharge cycle (sometimes referred to as a formation cycle), the organicsolvent in the electrolyte can partially decompose on the negativeelectrode surface to form a SEI layer. The interphase is generallyelectrically insulating but ionically conductive, thereby allowinglithium ions to pass through. The interphase also prevents decompositionof the electrolyte in the later charging sub-cycles.

Some examples of non-aqueous solvents suitable for some lithium ioncells include the following: cyclic carbonates (e.g., ethylene carbonate(EC), propylene carbonate (PC), butylene carbonate (BC) andvinylethylene carbonate (VEC)), vinylene carbonate (VC), lactones (e.g.,gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), gamma-valerolactone (GVL) and alpha-angelicalactone (AGL)), linear carbonates (e.g., dimethyl carbonate (DMC),methyl ethyl carbonate (MEC), diethyl carbonate (DEC), methyl propylcarbonate (MPC), dipropyl carbonate (DPC), methyl butyl carbonate (NBC)and dibutyl carbonate (DBC)), ethers (e.g., tetrahydrofuran (THF),2-methyltetrahydrofuran, 1,4-dioxane, 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME),1,2-diethoxyethane and 1,2-dibutoxyethane), nitrites (e.g., acetonitrileand adiponitrile) linear esters (e.g., methyl propionate, methylpivalate, butyl pivalate and octyl pivalate), amides (e.g., dimethylformamide), organic phosphates (e.g., trimethyl phosphate and trioctylphosphate), organic compounds containing an S═O group (e.g., dimethylsulfone and divinyl sulfone), and combinations thereof.

Non-aqueous liquid solvents can be employed in combination. Examples ofthese combinations include combinations of cyclic carbonate-linearcarbonate, cyclic carbonate-lactone, cyclic carbonate-lactone-linearcarbonate, cyclic carbonate-linear carbonate-lactone, cycliccarbonate-linear carbonate-ether, and cyclic carbonate-linearcarbonate-linear ester. In one embodiment, a cyclic carbonate may becombined with a linear ester. Moreover, a cyclic carbonate may becombined with a lactone and a linear ester. In a specific embodiment,the ratio of a cyclic carbonate to a linear ester is between about 1:9to 10:0, preferably 2:8 to 7:3, by volume.

A salt for liquid electrolytes may include one or more of the following:LiPF₆, LiBF₄, LiClO₄ LiAsF₆, LiN(CF₃SO₂)₂, LiN(C2F5SO2)2, LiCF3SO3,LiC(CF3SO2)3, LiPF4(CF3)2, LiPF3(C2F5)3, LiPF3(CF3)3, LiPF3(iso-C3F7)3,LiPF5(iso-C3F7), lithium salts having cyclic alkyl groups (e.g.,(CF2)2(SO2)2xLi and (CF2)3(SO2)2xLi), and combinations thereof. Commoncombinations include LiPF6 and LiBF4, LiPF6 and LiN(CF3SO2)2, LiBF4 andLiN(CF3SO2)2.

In one embodiment, the total concentration of salt in a liquidnonaqueous solvent (or combination of solvents) is at least about 0.3 M;in a more specific embodiment, the salt concentration is at least about0.7M. The upper concentration limit may be driven by a solubility limitor may be no greater than about 2.5 M; in a more specific embodiment, itmay be no more than about 1.5 M.

A solid electrolyte is typically used without the separator because itserves as the separator itself. It is electrically insulating, ionicallyconductive, and electrochemically stable. In the solid electrolyteconfiguration, a lithium containing salt, which could be the same as forthe liquid electrolyte cells described above, is employed but ratherthan being dissolved in an organic solvent, it is held in a solidpolymer composite. Examples of solid polymer electrolytes may beionically conductive polymers prepared from monomers containing atomshaving lone pairs of electrons available for the lithium ions ofelectrolyte salts to attach to and move between during conduction, suchas polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) or chloride or copolymer of theirderivatives, poly(chlorotrifluoroethylene),poly(ethylene-chlorotrifluoro-ethylene), or poly(fluorinatedethylene-propylene), polyethylene oxide (PEO) and oxymethylene linkedPEO, PEO-PPO-PEO crosslinked with trifunctional urethane,poly(bis(methoxy-ethoxy-ethoxide))-phosphazene (MEEP), triol-type PEOcrosslinked with difunctional urethane,poly((oligo)oxyethylene)methacrylate-co-alkali metal methacrylate,polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polymethylmethacrylate (PNMA),polymethylacrylonitrile (PMAN), polysiloxanes and their copolymers andderivatives, acrylate-based polymer, other similar solvent-freepolymers, combinations of the foregoing polymers either condensed orcross-linked to form a different polymer, and physical mixtures of anyof the foregoing polymers. Other less conductive polymers that may beused in combination with the above polymers to improve the strength ofthin laminates include: polyester (PET), polypropylene (PP),polyethylene napthalate (PEN), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF),polycarbonate (PC), polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), andpolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).

FIG. 12 illustrates a cross-section view of a wound cylindrical cell, inaccordance with one embodiment. A jelly roll comprises a spirally woundpositive electrode 1202, a negative electrode 1204, and two sheets ofthe separator 1206. The jelly roll is inserted into a cell case 1216,and a cap 1218 and gasket 1220 are used to seal the cell. It should benoted that in certain embodiments a cell is not sealed until aftersubsequent operations. In some cases, cap 1218 or cell case 1216includes a safety device. For example, a safety vent or burst valve maybe employed to open if excessive pressure builds up in the battery. Incertain embodiments, a one-way gas release valve is included to releaseoxygen that has been released during activation of the positivematerial. Also, a positive thermal coefficient (PTC) device may beincorporated into the conductive pathway of cap 1218 to reduce thedamage that might result if the cell suffered a short circuit. Theexternal surface of the cap 1218 may be used as the positive terminal,while the external surface of the cell case 1216 may serve as thenegative terminal. In an alternative embodiment, the polarity of thebattery is reversed and the external surface of the cap 1218 is used asthe negative terminal, while the external surface of the cell case 1216serves as the positive terminal. Tabs 1208 and 1210 may be used toestablish a connection between the positive and negative electrodes andthe corresponding terminals. Appropriate insulating gaskets 1214 and1212 may be inserted to prevent the possibility of internal shorting.For example, a Kapton™ film may be used for internal insulation. Duringfabrication, the cap 1218 may be crimped to the cell case 1216 in orderto seal the cell. However, prior to this operation, electrolyte (notshown) is added to fill the porous spaces of the jelly roll.

A rigid case is typically used for lithium ion cells, while lithiumpolymer cells may be packed into flexible, foil-type (polymer laminate)cases. A variety of materials can be chosen for the cases. Forlithium-ion batteries, Ti-6-4, other Ti alloys, Al, Al alloys, and 300series stainless steels may be suitable for the positive conductive caseportions and end caps, and commercially pure Ti, Ti alloys, Cu, Al, Alalloys, Ni, Pb, and stainless steels may be suitable for the negativeconductive case portions and end caps.

In addition to the battery applications described above, thenanostructures may be used in fuel cells (e.g., for anodes, cathodes,and electrolytes), hetero-junction solar cell active materials, variousforms of current collectors, and/or absorption coatings.

This invention has been described herein in considerable detail toprovide those skilled in the art with information relevant to apply thenovel principles and to construct and use such specialized components asare required. However, it is to be understood that the invention can becarried out by different equipment, materials and devices, and thatvarious modifications, both as to the equipment and operatingprocedures, can be accomplished without departing from the scope of theinvention itself.

We claim:
 1. An anode for a lithium battery, comprising: a) a substrate;b) a nanowire template rooted to the substrate; c) a first amorphoussilicon layer substantially coating the nanowire template, the firstamorphous silicon layer having a first density; and d) a secondamorphous silicon layer over the first amorphous silicon layer and anyexposed nanowire template, the second amorphous silicon layer having adensity higher than the density of the first amorphous silicon layer. 2.The anode of claim 1, wherein the first density is less than 2.2 g/cm³.3. The anode of claim 1, wherein the first density is less than 2.1g/cm³.
 4. The anode of claim 1, wherein the second amorphous siliconlayer has a density greater than 2.25 g/cm³.
 5. The anode of claim 1,wherein the second amorphous silicon layer has a density at least 0.05g/cm³ greater than that of the first amorphous silicon layer.
 6. Theanode of claim 1, wherein the second amorphous silicon layer has adensity at least 0.15 g/cm³ greater than that of the first amorphoussilicon layer.
 7. The anode of claim 1, wherein the first amorphoussilicon layer is non-conformal to the nanowire template.
 8. The anode ofclaim 1, wherein the second amorphous silicon layer is conformal to theunderlying surface of the first amorphous silicon layer.
 9. The anode ofclaim 1, wherein the hydrogen content of the first amorphous siliconlayer is at least 10% atomic.
 10. The anode of claim 1, wherein thehydrogen content of the second amorphous silicon layer is no more than5% atomic.
 11. The anode of claim 1, wherein the nanowire templatecomprises silicide nanowires.
 12. The anode of claim 1, wherein thefirst amorphous silicon layer is between about 5 and 20 microns thick atits maximum diameter.
 13. The anode of claim 1, wherein the secondamorphous silicon layer is between about 5 and 500 nanometers thick. 14.The anode of claim 1, wherein the second amorphous silicon layer isabout 5 and 100 nanometers thick.
 15. A lithium battery, comprising: ananode as in claim 1; a lithium-containing cathode; an electrolyte inionic communication with both the anode and the cathode.
 16. An anodefor a lithium battery, comprising: a substrate; a nanowire templaterooted to the substrate; a first layer substantially coating thenanowire template, the first layer comprising amorphous silicon andhaving a first density; and a second layer over the first layer and anyexposed nanowire template, the second layer comprising amorphous siliconand having a density higher than the density of the first layer.
 17. Ananode for a lithium battery, comprising: a substrate; a nanowiretemplate rooted to the substrate; a first layer over the nanowiretemplate, the first layer comprising silicon and having a first density;and a second layer over the first layer and any exposed nanowiretemplate, the second layer comprising amorphous silicon and having adensity greater than the density of the first layer.
 18. The anode ofclaim 17, wherein the first density is less than 2.2 g/cm³.
 19. Theanode of claim 17, wherein the first density is less than 2.1 g/cm³. 20.The anode of claim 17, wherein the second layer has a density greaterthan 2.25 g/cm³.
 21. The anode of claim 17, wherein the second layer hasa density at least 0.05 g/cm³ greater than that of the first layer. 22.The anode of claim 17, wherein the second layer has a density at least0.15 g/cm³ greater than that of the first layer.
 23. The anode of claim17, wherein the first layer is non-conformal to the nanowire template.24. The anode of claim 17, wherein the second layer is conformal to theunderlying surface of the first layer.
 25. The anode of claim 17,wherein the hydrogen content of the first layer is at least 10% atomic.26. The anode of claim 17, wherein the hydrogen content of the secondlayer is no more than 5% atomic.
 27. The anode of claim 17, wherein thenanowire template comprises silicide nanowires.
 28. The anode of claim17, wherein the first layer is between about 5 and 20 microns thick atits maximum diameter.
 29. The anode of claim 17, wherein the secondlayer is between about 5 and 500 nanometers thick.
 30. The anode ofclaim 17, wherein the second layer is about 5 and 100 nanometers thick.